Don't drink the HD tuner Kool-Aid

If you've ever eavesdropped on a conversation between a prospective HDTV buyer and a salesperson at Best Buy, you know there's some confusion over just what an HDTV is.

The conversation usually goes something like this:

Prospective buyer: Is this an HDTV?

Salesperson: Yes, it's HD-ready.

Prospective buyer: What's that mean?

Salesperson: It means it doesn't have a built-in HD tuner, but it will accept a HD signal from an external set-top box.

Prospective buyer: Is that good or bad?

Eventually, if the salesperson is honest, he'll tell you that you really don't need an HDTV tuner built into the set if you're going to be getting your HD from a cable or satellite company. You rent or buy the set-top box from your service provider, and the tuner is built into that box--which often includes such desirable features as a DVR and an onscreen electronic programming guide.

You read that correctly: if you plan on getting high-definition programming from satellite (DirecTV or Dish Network) or your local cable company, a built-in HDTV tuner is worthless. You don't need it. And, unfortunately, this extraneous (for most people) bit of technology is costing you extra. But don't blame the manufacturers; the culprit here is Uncle Sam himself, in the form of the Federal Communications Commission. The FCC has decreed a schedule by which an ever-increasing majority of TVs sold--all sets 25 inches or larger by March 2006, for instance--must include a high-def, or ATSC, tuner. And while the law may be well intentioned, it--like a lot of inside-the-Beltway bureaucratic policy--is a reflection of a 1950s worldview that has little to do with 21st-century reality.

This isn't a TV.

Fortunately, every law has a loophole, and the tuner mandate is no exception: the high-def tuner requirement applies only to TVs that have an analog (NTSC) tuner. Savvy manufacturers are dropping both tuners, and exempting themselves from the statute. The result is a burgeoning category of HD monitors--displays that are fully capable of high-definition resolution once they're hooked up to an HD video source. While they can't legally be marketed as TVs, you'll nevertheless find them prominently displayed in the TV section of your local electronics store, not to mention major discounters such as Sam's Club or Costco. As for the likes of Panasonic and Pioneer, their highly rated bare-bones sets (such as the Panasonic TH-42PHD7UY) are referred to as industrial models, and you're more likely to find them in an online store rather than a brick-and-mortar one. Not all of these glorified computer monitors accept computer signals, but many do. For instance, the 1080p-capable Westinghouse LVM-37W1 we recently reviewed makes for a stunning 37-inch PC monitor for playing Half-Life 2 or Doom 3.

The point is that some of the best buys in flat-panel displays today are tunerless models, and consumers should avoid paying for features they probably won't use. As I stated in an earlier column, the one potential benefit of having a built-in digital tuner is that you can get free local HD programming with an inexpensive antenna, if there's a powerful enough HD transmitter in your area. That HD picture may also be a tad better than the picture you'd get via a set-top box from your cable or satellite company, which often compresses signals to conserve bandwidth. But if you're not going to get your HD over-the-air, there's very little point in having the tuner. You can, for instance, get picture-in-picture (PIP) functionality from a cable or satellite box. My Scientific Atlantic 8300HD DVR even has two HD tuners for HD picture-in-picture, something few HDTVs currently offer.

Bring your own tuner--and save big bucks.

Of course, there are plenty of savvy consumers who've already figured out they'll be fine with an HD monitor rather than an HDTV. From the e-mails I've been getting lately, it appears that majority of you are looking at price first, design second, picture quality a close third, and features last--with the most important feature being connectivity (ideally, a set should have two HDMI and two component video inputs, as well as support for PC connectivity). And that's a large part of the reason so-called low-cost manufacturers--upstarts such as Westinghouse, Maxent, Norcent, Vizio, and Syntax Olevia--are taking share away from big guys such as Sony, Sharp, and the rest. A recent Los Angeles Times article observed that LCD leader Sharp saw its global unit market share dip to 23 percent from 42 percent a year earlier as a "dozen or so obscure" manufacturers increased their share to 43 percent from 28 percent. Meanwhile, Sony's TV unit saw a 21 percent revenue drop in the first quarter of this year compared to a year earlier.

Surprisingly, Dell--which is making a big push into flat-panel HDTVs--isn't offering a bare-bones tunerless model. I'm not sure how it's going to compete on price when a digital tuner--at least at this point in the game--seems to add about $200 to $300 to the price tag of a TV. Dell's 42-inch high-resolution plasma, once the least expensive in its class, is being beat by no-namers on price, and it's going to be even further challenged when Norcent and others put out high-resolution 42-inchers for less than $2,000 this fall (you can now get a 42-inch ED plasma for $1,600). Maxent is already pushing the envelope with some very aggressive pricing of its flat-panel sets. And we have a 50-inch plasma in-house (the Vizio P50HDM, review coming soon) that costs a cool $2,599 after discounts at Costco. According to the company's product rep, it neglected to include a tuner "to keep costs down."

Dell reps, for their part, say they've done focus groups that indicate that when people buy an HDTV, they expect to get an HDTV--one that, out of the box, allows you to receive HD programming. Fair enough. I understand that major companies are in the business of formulating marketing plans based on some sort of research. But I do think Dell would be better served leading the tunerless HD monitor charge, especially since it's been very successful selling tons of inexpensive flat-panel computer monitors. The company's own 24-inch 2405FPW is a perfect example; it boasts an impressive array of VGA, DVI, and non-PC video inputs, but it's too small for home-theater use. It's also now somewhat overpriced, compared to the some of above-mentioned competition.

My prediction is that, as low-cost manufacturers continue to drive flat-panel costs down, the big guys will have to respond with more bare-bones models of their own. Yes, such technologies as CableCard, which allows you to forgo a cable set-top box for HD, should eventually become more compelling, and prices for digital tuners will come down. But until then, there's no reason to pay extra for the FCC version of an HDTV.


http://reviews.cnet.com/4520-6449_7-6305617-1.html

How an ATSC Tuner Works

An ATSC tuner works by generating audio and video signals that are picked up from over the air TV broadcasts. ATSC tuners provide the following functions: demodulation, transport stream demultiplexing, decompression, error correction, analog to digital conversion, AV synchronization and media reformatting to fit the specific type of TV screen optimally.

Demodulation

Demodulation means that the signal that is pulled off the airways is transformed into a usable signal that your TV set can use to display quality images and quality sound.

Transport Stream Demultiplexing

In the US, multiple digital signals are combined and then transmitted from one antenna source to create over the air broadcasts. An ATSC receiver then is able to decode the transport stream and display it on your TV set.

Decompression

Since digital signal that are broadcast over the air are compressed (packed smaller), once they are received by the ATSC tuner, these compressed packets of digital data are then unpacked to their original size or using the proper term decompressed.

Error Correction

Error correction is a technology that is used by the ATSC tuner to make sure that any data that is missing can be corrected. For instance, sometimes interference or a poor quality signal will cause the loss of data information that the ATSC tuner receives, with error correction, the tuner has the ability to perform a number of checks and repair data so that a signal can be viewed on a TV set.

Analog to Digital Conversion

Analog to digital conversion, sometimes called ADC or A to D refers to a technology in which an analog signal is converted into a digital signal. In the context of an ATSC tuner, an analog TV broadcast that is broadcasted over the air is received by the ATSC tuner and converted from its original analog signal to a new digital signal that can be viewed on a digital TV set.

AV Synchronization

AV synchronization is the coordination of audio and video signals being displayed on your digital TV in proper time. AV synchronization makes sure that your audio sound doesn't lag behind the video that is being displayed on your TV set or vice versa. This technology makes sure that both your audio and video are in synch.

Media Reformatting

Media reformatting is extremely important because different TV sets format their images significantly different and can use several different technologies. For instance, a standard TV has an interlaced picture; where as a digital TV has a progressive scan picture.

"Interlaced" means that while there are 30 image frames being shown per second on a standard TV, every 1/60th, the TV refreshes only half the images. With progressive scan, the entire image is refreshed 60 times per second. TV's can come in different aspect ratios.

An aspect ratio is the shape of the TV screen. For example, a standard TV is boxy in shape with a 4:3 ratio, while digital TV's come in aspect ratios more in the shape of a 16:9 rectangle.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATSC_tuner

ATSC tuner

Multiple MPEG programs are combined then sent to a transmitting antenna. In the US broadcast digital TV system, an ATSC receiver then decodes the TS and displays it on your TV.

An ATSC tuner, often called an ATSC receiver or HDTV tuner, allows reception of ATSC digital television (DTV) signals broadcast over-the-air by TV stations in North America and South Korea. Such tuners may be integrated into the television, VCR, digital video recorder, and set-top box which provides audio/video output-connectors of various types.

Technical overview

The terms "tuner" and "receiver" are used loosely, and it is perhaps more appropriately called an ATSC receiver, with the tuner being part of the receiver (see Metonymy). The receiver generates the audio and video (AV) signals needed for television, and performs the following tasks: demodulation, error correction, transport stream demultiplexing, decompression, analog to digital conversion, AV synchronization, and media reformatting to match what is optimal input for one's TV. Examples of media reformatting include: interlace to progressive scan or vice versa, picture resolutions, aspect ratio conversions (16:9 to or from 4:3), frame rate conversion, even scaling. Zooming is an example of resolution change. It is commonly used to convert a low-resolution picture to a high-resolution display.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATSC_tuner

Whether or Not To Buy A Built-In HD Tuner

When buying a new HD television, it's impossible to get around the question, "Should I buy one with a built-in HD tuner or save a couple of bucks and get one that's just HD-ready?" It's a simple enough question, but before answering you might figure out how you plan to use the television.

Questions to consider:
Do you want to pay between $300-800 for an external HDTV tuner or rent one for the rest of the TV's life?
Do you plan on subscribing to your cable or satellite company's HD package?
Is receiving over-the-air HD signals important to you if you don't subscribe to a cable or satellite company's HD package?

As an owner of a HDTV without a built-in tuner, I am a converted believer in buying televisions with built-in tuners (if you can afford it) because they offer the most flexibility. I can't receive HD programming unless I purchase or rent an external receiver, which is a downside because most companies make you subscribe to their HD package when ordering a HD receiver. But, I don't want to pay an additional $10-a-month for a HD package. I only want to connect an off-air HD antenna to my television and watch over-the-air signals.

Of course, I could fix my problem by purchasing a third-party company's HD receiver for several hundred dollars, but it almost seems like I'll be spending more than if I bought a TV with a built-in tuner. This is a scenario I never considered when I bought the television. While it's not the end of the world, it is worth mentioning.

http://tv.about.com/b/2005/06/16/whether-or-not-to-buy-a-built-in-hd-tuner.htm

HDTV PC Tuner

What an HDTV PC Tuner does (and what it doesn't do)

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An HDTV PC Tuner does one thing, it receives digital MPEG-2 encoded packets from an over-the air or cable broadcast and passes them to a HDTV tuner software application. If a packet is not received correctly for whatever reason, that data is lost. Digital/HDTV is a “get it all or get nothing” proposition, as opposed to analog broadcasts where weak signals can be captured and displayed on a TV, with the result usually being a snowy picture.

The difference in HDTV tuners boils down to:

1. Whether they can tune cable QAM
2. PC processor utilization
3. How well they pull in weak and multi-path signals.
4. Cost

A multi-path signal is a broadcast signal that has been reflected by trees, buildings or other objects to the tuner. In the analog TV world it translates to “ghosts” on the screen. With HDTV, multi-path can confuse the capture process, resulting in corrupt data, which in turn means lost data frames ultimately resulting in a flicker or jerky picture. The better tuners have the ability to lock in on the strongest signal and disregard the weak multi-path signal(s), and to pull in the weak broadcast signals. If you are in an area with lots of obstacles, a tuner with good multi-path filtering such as the Vbox Cat’s Eye 150 or one of the Fusion 5 tuners is recommended.

The quality of a HDTV picture depends on several things. Those under your control are: the MPEG-2 decoders*, the graphic card*, and the HDTV monitor. Since the HDTV tuner only captures and forwards data, it is not on the list.

If the decoders, graphics card and monitor stay the same, the digital/HDTV picture displayed will look same regardless which HDTV tuner and tuner software is used.

This assumes that the broadcast signal is strong enough for each tuner and multi-path does not cause packet loss.


http://www.hdtvtunerinfo.com/hdtvtunerfunctions.html

Biomarker

A Biomarker is a substance used as an indicator of a biologic state. It is a characteristic that is objectively measured and evaluated as an indicator of normal biologic processes, pathogenic processes, or pharmacologic responses to a therapeutic intervention.

Biomarkers validated by genetic and molecular biology methods can be classified into three types. 1. Type 0 - Natural history markers 2. Type 1 - Drug activity markers and 3. Type II - Surrogate markers

It can be any kind of molecule indicating the existence (past or present) of living organisms. In particular, in the fields of geology and astrobiology biomarkers are also known as biosignatures. The term is also used to describe biological involvement in the generation of petroleum (see Biomarker (petroleum)).

In medicine, a biomarker can be a substance that is introduced in an organism as a means to examine organ function or other aspects of health. For example, rubidium chloride is used as a radioactive isotope to evaluate perfusion of heart muscle.

In medicine, a biomarker can be a substance whose detection indicates a particular disease state (for example, the presence of an antibody may indicate an infection). More specifically, a "biomarker" indicates a change in expression or state of a protein that correlates with the risk or progression of a disease, or with the susceptibility of the disease to a given treatment. Once a proposed biomarker has been validated, it can be used to diagnose disease risk, presence of disease in an individual, or to tailor treatments for the disease in an individual (choices of drug treatment or administration regimes). In evaluating potential drug therapies, a biomarker may be used as a surrogate for a natural endpoint such as survival or irreversible morbidity. If a treatment alters the biomarker, which has a direct connection to improved health, the biomarker serves as a "surrogate endpoint" for evaluating clinical benefit.

In psychiatric research, a fruitful way of finding genetic causes for diseases such as schizophrenia has been the use of a special kind of biomarker: endophenotype.

In cell biology, a biomarker is a molecule that allows for the detection and isolation of a particular cell type (for example, the protein Oct-4 is used as a biomarker to identify embryonic stem cells).

A biomarker can also be used to indicate exposure to various environmental substances in epidemiology and toxicology. In these cases, the biomarker may be the external substance itself (e.g. asbestos particles or NNK from tobacco), or a variant of the external substance processed by the body (a metabolite). (See also: Bioindicator.)

In genetics, a biomarker (identified as genetic marker) is a fragment of DNA sequence that causes disease or is associated with susceptibility to disease.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomarker

Recent trends in biogenetic structural theory

There have been several recent trends in biogenetic structuralism that are of interest to anthropology:

Transpersonal experience

One trend is toward a greater attention to transpersonal experience (see also transpersonal and transpersonal anthropology) as data relevant to the study of ritual; that is, to extraordinary experiences and states of consciousness, and the relation of these to patterns of symbolism, cognition and practice found in religions and cosmologies cross-culturally (see d'Aquili 1982, Laughlin 1985, 1988a, 1988c, Laughlin et al. 1986, Laughlin McManus and Shearer 1983, Laughlin, McManus and Webber 1984, MacDonald et al. 1988, Webber et al. 1983). Taking their inspiration from William James, the group has tracked the greatest range of human experience and related this to transformations in neurocognitive, autonomic and neuroendocrine entrainments. By expanding their scope to include all possible human experience, they hope to understand:

1. The maximum potential genetic and developmental limits to patterns of entrainment and therefore to human experience,
2. The mechanisms by which societies condition patterns of entrainment so as to control (limit or extend) the range of human experience,
3. The mechanisms by which societies produce recurrent extraordinary experiences in some or all of their members so as to verify and vivify the societies' world views,
4. And by extrapolation, the possible future limits of human consciousness (Laughlin and Richardson 1986).

Pre- and perinatal anthropology

Another trend in biogenetic structural theory has been to extend the age at which society influences neurocognitive development back into very early life. There is now sufficient evidence from clinical psychology and developmental neurobiology that experiences occurring in pre- and perinatal life (in the womb, during birth and during early infancy) are formative on later patterns of neurocognitive entrainment and adaptation. The methodological import of this view is that anthropologists and others interested in the ontogenesis of cognitive systems and cultural patterns need to look more carefully at how society conditions the environment of the human being during that early formative period (see Laughlin 1989a, 1990).

Neurophenomenology

Another recent interest has been in making a case for the importance of a neurophenomenology to the study of brain, consciousness and culture -- an approach that is often considered to be antithetical to the anti-introspectionist bias of positivist science, and particularly to some schools of cognitive science (Laughlin, McManus and d'Aquili 1990). Phenomenology (a la Edmund Husserl, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Aron Gurwitsch, and others, as well as eastern mystical and cross-cultural shamanistic traditions) is the study of the invariant processes of consciousness (i.e., essences) by the practice of mature contemplation. Neurophenomenology is thus the attempt to explain such processes by reference to what is known about the brain. Two recent studies by the group exemplify this merging of contemplative and neuroscientific perspectives. One study discusses the wired-in intentionality of consciousness (noted in fact by all phenomenologies) in terms of a systemic dialectic between prefrontal cortex and sensory cortex (Laughlin 1988b). Another study suggests the relationship between invariant temporal patterns of perceptual sequencing and the neuropsychological literature available on "perceptual framing" (Laughlin 1992).

Contributions to cyborg anthropology

Because biogenetic structural theory rejects any disembodied account of consciousness or culture, it was quite natural for the group to consider the implications of the direct interfacing of information processing technologies (e.g., computers) and the development and evolution of the brain -- an inevitable outcome considering the modern research intended to bring that eventuality about. These considerations led to studies in the area of what has been called cyborg anthropology and cyberculture. A cyborg, short for "cybernetic organism," is a being that is part cybernetic machine and part organism, a term coined by two NASA scientists, Manfred Clynes and Nathan Kline (1960, reprinted in Gray 1995). These men suggested some of the advantages for space exploration of altering the human body with machines.

The group's analysis of the cyborg is grounded in the findings of modern neuroscience. The perspective is grounded upon the presumption that human consciousness and culture are functions of the human nervous system. In other words, consciousness is as much the function of the brain as digestion is the function of the stomach and grasping the function of the hand. Their reasoning and research led ultimately to a four stage account of the evolution of the cyborg -- a natural, but special case of the evolution of technology as a whole. The group hypothesizes that the emergence of the cyborg is following these stages:

• Stage I: Replacement or augmentation of the human skeleton. Examples: wooden leg, hook for lost hand, armor, false teeth, etc. This has been going on for centuries.

• Stage II: Replacement or augmentation of muscle. Examples: mechanical hand for lost hand, other prosthetic devices, mechanical heart valve, replacement of lens in eye, etc. Began to emerge in the mid-20th century.

• Stage III: Replacement or augmentation of parts of the peripheral nervous system, autonomic nervous system and the neuroendocrine system. Examples: bionic arms and legs, pacemakers, automatic biochemical pumps, etc. Emerging in the later 20th century.

• Stage IV: Replacement or augmentation of parts of the central nervous system. Examples: video "eyes" for blind, Air Force cyborg fighter plane control, etc. Rudimentary steps in the later 20th century.

Of course, this model is an over-simplification of the unfolding of the cyborg process, but it has the advantage of letting one see the progressive complexity involved. Stage I cyborg is equivalent to the external extension of the hands with a hammer, knife or other primitive tool. It essentially replaces or augments the skeletal physiology of the limbs. Thus the wooden leg and hook as prosthetic devices represent the more primitive innovations leading to the process of cyborg transformation. Portions of the nervous system have been eliminated with the loss of the amputated appendage.

Stage II cyborg sees the technical replacement or augmentation of both skeletal and muscle systems in the body. This stage is equivalent to the external replacement of muscles with engines. The hand is replaced with a movable machine, perhaps manipulated by servomechanisms that are triggered by movements of particular muscle groups. The diseased heart valve is replaced by a mechanical valve. The lens of the eye is replaced by a synthetic lens, and so on. Such mechanisms depend upon intact neuro-muscular systems for their control.

At Stage III cyborg, technical penetration reaches the nervous system and replaces or augments neural structures in the peripheral, autonomic or endocrine systems involved in the regulation of internal states. This stage is equivalent to simple regulatory systems in the external world, such as the thermostat controlling the temperature of a heater. Clynes and Kline addressed their original cyborg paper to problems in space exploration that might be solved by Stage III cyborg measures. The "bionic" arms and legs of the Six Million Dollar Man are fictional examples of Stage III developments, as is the more realistic contemporary heart pacemaker.

Finally, Stage IV cyborg produces the replacement or augmentation of structures in the central nervous system. This stage is equivalent to the supplementation or replacement of human brain power with computers in industry. This stage may involve modification of structures mediating the cognitive aspects of emotion, as well as imagination, intuition, perception, rational thought, intentionality, language, etc. -- all of which require higher cortical processing. Examples of developments at this stage are technologies such as the miniature video camera "eyes" wired to an electrode array implanted in the visual cortex of certain blind people. And rumor has it that the United States Air Force underwrites research on technologies that would allow direct brain to aircraft interfacing for fighter pilots. Scientists at Tokyo University have fitted microprocessors to the nervous systems of cockroaches using electrodes, and are able to control the roaches’ behavior via computer link.

The point to emphasize in all of this is that the emergence of the cyborg is a process of progressive technological penetration into the body, eventually replacing or augmenting the structures that mediate the various physical and mental attributes that we normally consider natural to human beings, including emotion, sensory modes, imagination and rational thought, the organization of intentional acts, etc. Clearly then, progressive penetration into the cortex of the brain will inevitably result in the technical alteration of human consciousness (Laughlin 1997), its optimal functioning and development in childhood (Laughlin 2000).

Quantum brain

See also: Quantum brain dynamics

Biogenetic structural theory was expanded in the 1990s in order to account for how the human brain and mind may interact directly with the quantum universe. This step was necessitated by anomalous evidence developed by scientists in quantum physics, parapsychology and the ethnology of altered states of consciousness -- evidence that strongly suggests that human consciousness is capable of producing causation at a distance and communication through telepathic means (see e.g., Radin 1997). One answer to these anomalous experiences is that the human brain may operate somewhat as a quantum computer and is able to translate patterned activity in the quantum universe into information, and conversely to transform information into patterned activity in the quantum universe (see Laughlin 1996, Throop and Laughlin 2001).

Cultural neurophenomenology

The group's most recent work has focused upon developing a cultural neurophenomenology (see Laughlin & Throop 2001, 2006, 2007, Throop & Laughlin 2002, 2003). Cultural neurophenomenology is the view that the most productive research strategy for discovering the invariant properties of consciousness is trained introspection. After all, they argue, our own experience and awareness are the only ones we have direct access to. Anti-introspectionist positions in science are claimed by its adherents to be primarily due to pre-scientific cultural hangovers from Church rulings against direct spiritual exploration -- stemming historically from the so-called gnostic heresy. They consider behaviorist reaction to Wilhelm Wundt's introspectionism in psychology to be merely a legitimation of these cultural attitudes.

Edmund Husserl taught a different approach to the study of consciousness. He argued that in order to differentiate in experience between what is given by the world and what is added by our own minds in the constitution of experience, we must cultivate a trained introspection. When we do so (in Husserl's terms, when we master the "phenomenological reduction") we discover there are invariant properties of mind that condition and order our experience. For instance, we generate a sense of time by retaining recently past experience ("retention") and anticipating the near future ("protention") and combining these with the actual, on-going "now point" arising and passing in our sensorium. Once we come to understand that this is how our mind works, the question then naturally arises, what is "real" time in the sense of time existing in extramental reality, independent of our experience and our knowledge? Also, how does the structure of our nervous system mediate this time sense, and how does culture impact upon our interpretations of temporality?

The group is now examining a variety of issues regarding experience. Thus far they have utilized this framework to explore the cross-cultural and neuropsychological factors in the experience of emotion, including the emotional aspects of higher states of consciousness, the role of myth and cosmology in "trueing-up" the relationship between experience and reality, the importance of altered states of consciousness in bolstering the veridicality of experience, the interpenetration of experience and extramental reality, and a modern re-interpretation of Emile Durkheim's "collective effervescence."

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogenetic_Structuralism

Biogenetic structuralism

Biogenetic structuralism is a body of theory in anthropology. The perspective grounds discussions of learning, culture, personality and social action in neuroscience. The original book of that title (Laughlin and d'Aquili 1974) represented an interdisciplinary merger of anthropology, psychology and the neurosciences. It presented the view that the universal structures characteristic of human language and culture, cognition about time and space, affect, certain psychopathologies, and the like were due to the genetically predisposed organization of the nervous system. It seemed to the authors preposterous that the invariant patterns of behavior, cognition and culture being discussed in various structuralist theories in anthropology, psychology and literary criticism could be lodged anywhere other than in the nervous system. After all, every thought, every image, every feeling and action is demonstrably mediated by the nervous system. Moreover, it seemed possible to develop a theoretical perspective that: was non-dualistic in modelling mind and body, was not reductionistic in the positivist sense (i.e., that the physical sciences can give a complete account of all things mental/cultural), and was informed by all reasonable sources of data about human consciousness and culture. In other words, no explanatory account of culture is complete without encompassing what we know about the structures in the nervous system mediating culture -- for example, music, which is a cultural universal mediated by demonstrable neurophysiological structures (see Biomusicology).

This project had to be lodged within an evolutionary frame due to: (1) the evidence of dramatic encephalization found in the fossil record of extinct human ancestors, and the fact that cultural variation was conceived as the primary mode of human adaptation (see Evolutionary neuroscience). We thus explored the different areas of the nervous system that seem to have evolved during the course of hominid encephalization and that produce the distinctly human quality of mentation, learning, communication, and social action characteristic of our species today (see Human Evolution).

Neurognosis and the cognized environment

The group's first book presented some general concepts which were later refined and used in other studies. One important concept was neurognosis, a term coined to label the inherent, rudimentary knowledge available to cognition in the initial organization of the pre- and perinatal nervous system (see Pre- and perinatal psychology). A human baby was conceived as taking its first cognitive and perceptual stance toward the world from the standpoint of a system of initial, genetically predisposed neurognostic models that come to develop in somatosensory interaction with the world.

The principal function of the human nervous system at the level of the cerebral cortex is the construction of a vast network of these models. This network of neural models in each individual is called the cognized environment, contrasted with the actual operational environment that includes both the real nature of that individual as an organism and the effective external environment (see Laughlin and Brady 1978:6, d'Aquili et al. 1979:12, Rubinstein et al. 1984:21, Laughlin, McManus and d'Aquili 1990). The notions of cognized and operational environments were borrowed by the biogenetic structuralist group from the late Roy Rappaport who coined the terms in his 1968 classic, Pigs for the Ancestors (see Rappaport 1968, 1979, 1984, 1999). The perspective began to take on a more developmental perspective as it incorporated the works of Jerome Bruner, Jean Piaget and others. Biogenetic structural theory now holds that not only the initial organization of the baby's cognized environment is essentially neurognostic, but so too is the course of development of those models and patterns of entrainment of models -- a view not dissimilar to Carl Jung's notion of archetype (see Laughlin 1996 on archetypes and the brain).

Major foci: ritual and the symbolic function

The first book-length application of biogenetic structural theory was an account of the evolution and structure of human ritual. In The Spectrum of Ritual (d'Aquili et al. 1979) the group generated a theory of ritual behavior as a mechanism by which intra- and interorganismic entrainment of neurocognitive processes are evoked, thus making concerted action among social animals possible. The general model was used to examine formalized behavior among animals generally, then specifically among mammals, primates and finally humans. They also looked at the various neurocognitive processes mediating arousal, affect, physical and social cognition, etc. As it has turned out, ritual has been a major focus of the group's work (see also d'Aquili 1983, d'Aquili and Laughlin 1975, Laughlin and McManus 1982, Laughlin et al. 1986, Laughlin 1988c) because of ritual's ubiquitous nature and its role in controlling cognition and experience.

Another major focus of biogenetic structural analysis has been what the group calls the symbolic function -- that is, the process by which meaning and form are integrated to become symbols in the brain (see Laughlin, McManus and Stephens 1981, Laughlin and Stephens 1980, MacDonald et al. 1988, Young- Laughlin and Laughlin 1988). The group has been particularly interested in how sensory stimuli as symbols are able to penetrate (i.e., find their way) to those neurocognitive models mediating meaning and signification, and how models express themselves in symbolic action and cultural artifacts. Among other things, the biogenetic structuralists developed a theory of the evolution of the symbolic function that proceeds from primordial symbol, through cognized SYMBOL systems to sign systems, and finally to formal sign systems, any or all of which may operate at any moment in adult human cognition (Laughlin, McManus and Stephens 1981).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogenetic_Structuralism

Applications of Angiogenesis

Types of angiogenesis

Sprouting angiogenesis

Sprouting angiogenesis was the first identified form of angiogenesis. It occurs in several well-characterized stages. First, biological signals known as angiogenic growth factors activate receptors present on endothelial cells present in pre-existing venular blood vessels. Second, the activated endothelial cells begin to release enzymes called proteases that degrade the basement membrane in order to allow endothelial cells to escape from the original (parent) vessel walls. The endothelial cells then proliferate into the surrounding matrix and form solid sprouts connecting neighboring vessels. As sprouts extend toward the source of the angiogenic stimulus, endothelial cells migrate in tandem, using adhesion molecules, the equivalent of cellular grappling hooks, called integrins. These sprouts then form loops to become a full-fledged vessel lumen as cells migrate to the site of angiogenesis. Sprouting occurs at a rate of several millimeters per day, and enables new vessels to grow across gaps in the vasculature. It is markedly different from splitting angiogenesis, however, because it forms entirely new vessels as opposed to splitting existing vessels ^[1].

Intussusceptive angiogenesis

Intussusception, also known as splitting angiogenesis, was first observed in neonatal rats. In this type of vessel formation, the capillary wall extends into the lumen to split a single vessel in two. There are four phases of intussusceptive angiogenesis. First, the two opposing capillary walls establish a zone of contact. Second, the endothelial cell junctions are reorganized and the vessel bilayer is perforated to allow growth factors and cells to penetrate into the lumen. Third, a core is formed between the two new vessels at the zone of contact that is filled with pericytes and myofibroblasts. These cells begin laying collagen fibers into the core to provide an extracellular matrix for growth of the vessel lumen. Finally, the core is fleshed out with no alterations to the basic structure. Intussusception is important because it is a reorganization of existing cells. It allows a vast increase in the number of capillaries without a corresponding increase in the number of endothelial cells. This is especially important in embryonic development as there are not enough resources to create a rich microvasculature with new cells every time a new vessel develops.

Modern Terminology of Angiogenesis

Besides the differentiation between “Sprouting angiogenesis” and “Intussusceptive angiogenesis” there exists the today more common differentiation between the following types of angiogenesis:

Vasculogenesis – Formation of vascular structures from circulating or tissue-resident endothelial stem cells (angioblasts), which proliferate into de-novo endothelial cells. This form particularly relates to the embryonal development of the vascular system.

Angiogenesis – Formation of thin-walled endothelium-lined structures with/without muscular smooth muscle wall and pericytes (fibrocytes). This form plays an important role during the adult life span, also as "repair mechanism" of damaged tissues.

Arteriogenesis – Formation of medium-sized blood vessels possessing tunica media plus adventitia.

Because it turned out that even this differentiation is not a sharp one, today quite often the term “Angiogenesis” is used summarizing all different types and modifications of arterial vessel growth.

References

• Rubanyi, G.M. (Ed): Angiogenesis in health and disease. M.Dekker, Inc., New York – Basel, 2000
• Raizada, M.K., Paton, J.F.R., Kasparov, S., Katovich, M.J. (Eds): Cardiovascular genomics. Humana Press, Totowa, N.J., 2005
• Kornowski, R., Epstein, S.E., Leon, M.B.(Eds.): Handbook of myocardial revascularization and angiogenesis. Martin Dunitz Ltd., London, 2000
• Stegmann, T.J.: New Vessels for the Heart. Angiogenesis as New Treatment for Coronary Heart Disease: The Story of its Discovery and Development. Henderson, Nevada: CardioVascular BioTherapeutics Inc., 2004
• Laham, R.J., Baim, D.S.: Angiogenesis and direct myocardial revascularization. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ, 2005

Therapeutic angiogenesis

Therapeutic angiogenesis is the application of specific compounds which may inhibit or induce the creation of new blood vessels in the body in order to combat disease. The presence of blood vessels where there should be none may affect the mechanical properties of a tissue, increasing the likelihood of failure. The absence of blood vessels in a repairing or otherwise metabolically active tissue may retard repair or some other function. Several diseases (eg. ischemic chronic wounds) are the result of failure or insufficient blood vessel formation and may be treated by a local expansion of blood vessels, thus bringing new nutrients to the site, facilitating repair. Other diseases, such as age-related macular degeneration, may be created by a local expansion of blood vessels, interfering with normal physiological processes.

The modern clinical application of the principle “angiogenesis” can be divided into two main areas: 1. Anti-angiogenic therapies (historically, research started with); 2. Pro-angiogenic therapies. Whereas anti-angiogenic therapies are trying to fight cancer and malignancies^[2][3] (because tumors, in general, are nutrition- and oxygen-dependent, thus being in need of adequate blood supply), the pro-angiogenic therapies are becoming more and more important in the search of new treatment options for cardiovascular diseases (the number one cause of death in the Western world). One of the world-wide first applications of usage of pro-angiogenic methods in humans was a German trial using fibroblast growth factor 1 (FGF-1) for the treatment of coronary artery disease^[4][5][6]. Today, clinical research is ongoing in various clinical trials to promote therapeutic angiogenesis for a variety of atherosclerotic diseases, like coronary heart disease, peripheral arterial disease, wound healing disorders, etc.^[7].

Also, regarding the “mode of action”, pro-angiogenic methods can be differentiated into three main categories: 1. Gene-therapy; 2. Protein-therapy (using angiogenic growth factors like FGF-1 or vascular endothelial growth factor, VEGF); 3. Cell-based therapies. There are still serious, unsolved problems related to gene therapy including: 1. Difficulty integrating the therapeutic DNA (gene) into the genome of target cells; 2. Risk of an undesired immune response; 3 Potential toxicity, immunogenicity, inflammatory responses and oncogenesis related to the viral vectors; and 4. The most commonly occurring disorders in humans such as heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease are most likely caused by the combined effects of variations in many genes, and thus injecting a single gene will not be beneficial in these diseases. In contrast, pro-angiogenic protein therapy uses well defined, precisely structured proteins, with previously defined optimal doses of the individual protein for disease states, and with well-known biological effects. On the other hand, an obstacle of protein therapy is the mode of delivery: oral, intravenous, intra-arterial, or intramuscular routes of the protein’s administration are not always as effective as desired; the therapeutic protein can be metabolized or cleared before it can enter the target tissue. Cell-based pro-angiogenic therapies are still in an early stage of research – with many open questions regarding best cell types and dosages to use.

References

1. ^ Burri, PH (2004). "Intussusceptive angiogenesis: its emergence, its characteristics, and its significance.". Dev Dyn. 231 (3): 474-88.
2. ^ Folkman, J, Klagsbrun, M: Angiogenetic factors. Science 235: 442-447, 1987
3. ^ Folkman J. Fighting cancer by attacking its blood supply. Sci Am. 275:150 –154, 1996
4. ^ Schumacher, B., Pecher, P., von Specht, B.U., Stegmann, T.J.: Induction of neoangiogenesis in ischemic myocardium by human growth factors. Circulation 97: 645-650, 1998
5. ^ Folkman, J.: Angiogenic therapy of the heart. Circulation 97: 628-629, 1998
6. ^ Stegmann, T.J.: A human growth factor in the induction of neoangiogenesis. Exp.Opin.Invest.Drugs 7: 2011-2015, 1998
7. ^ Wagoner, L.E., Merrill, W., Jacobs, J., Conway, G., Boehmer, J., Thomas, K., Stegmann, T.J.: Angiogenesis Protein Therapy With Human Fibroblast Growth Factor (FGF-1): Results Of A Phase I Open Label, Dose Escalation Study In Subjects With CAD Not Eligible For PCI Or CABG. Circulation 116: 443, 2007

Mechanical stimulation

Mechanical stimulation of angiogenesis is not well characterized. There is a significant amount of controversy with regard to shear stress acting on capillaries to cause angiogenesis, although current knowledge suggests that increased muscle contractions may increase angiogenesis^[8]. This may be due to an increase in the production of nitric oxide during exercise.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angiogenesis

Angiogenesis

Angiogenesis is a physiological process involving the growth of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels. Though there has been some debate over this, vasculogenesis is the term used for spontaneous blood-vessel formation, and intussusception is the term for new blood vessel formation by splitting off existing ones.

Angiogenesis is a normal process in growth and development, as well as in wound healing. However, this is also a fundamental step in the transition of tumors from a dormant state to a malignant state.

Types of angiogenesis

Sprouting angiogenesis

Sprouting angiogenesis was the first identified form of angiogenesis. It occurs in several well-characterized stages. First, biological signals known as angiogenic growth factors activate receptors present on endothelial cells present in pre-existing venular blood vessels. Second, the activated endothelial cells begin to release enzymes called proteases that degrade the basement membrane in order to allow endothelial cells to escape from the original (parent) vessel walls. The endothelial cells then proliferate into the surrounding matrix and form solid sprouts connecting neighboring vessels. As sprouts extend toward the source of the angiogenic stimulus, endothelial cells migrate in tandem, using adhesion molecules, the equivalent of cellular grappling hooks, called integrins. These sprouts then form loops to become a full-fledged vessel lumen as cells migrate to the site of angiogenesis. Sprouting occurs at a rate of several millimeters per day, and enables new vessels to grow across gaps in the vasculature. It is markedly different from splitting angiogenesis, however, because it forms entirely new vessels as opposed to splitting existing vessels ^[1].

Intussusceptive angiogenesis

Intussusception, also known as splitting angiogenesis, was first observed in neonatal rats. In this type of vessel formation, the capillary wall extends into the lumen to split a single vessel in two. There are four phases of intussusceptive angiogenesis. First, the two opposing capillary walls establish a zone of contact. Second, the endothelial cell junctions are reorganized and the vessel bilayer is perforated to allow growth factors and cells to penetrate into the lumen. Third, a core is formed between the two new vessels at the zone of contact that is filled with pericytes and myofibroblasts. These cells begin laying collagen fibers into the core to provide an extracellular matrix for growth of the vessel lumen. Finally, the core is fleshed out with no alterations to the basic structure. Intussusception is important because it is a reorganization of existing cells. It allows a vast increase in the number of capillaries without a corresponding increase in the number of endothelial cells. This is especially important in embryonic development as there are not enough resources to create a rich microvasculature with new cells every time a new vessel develops.

Modern Terminology of Angiogenesis

Besides the differentiation between “Sprouting angiogenesis” and “Intussusceptive angiogenesis” there exists the today more common differentiation between the following types of angiogenesis:

Vasculogenesis – Formation of vascular structures from circulating or tissue-resident endothelial stem cells (angioblasts), which proliferate into de-novo endothelial cells. This form particularly relates to the embryonal development of the vascular system.

Angiogenesis – Formation of thin-walled endothelium-lined structures with/without muscular smooth muscle wall and pericytes (fibrocytes). This form plays an important role during the adult life span, also as "repair mechanism" of damaged tissues.

Arteriogenesis – Formation of medium-sized blood vessels possessing tunica media plus adventitia.

Because it turned out that even this differentiation is not a sharp one, today quite often the term “Angiogenesis” is used summarizing all different types and modifications of arterial vessel growth.

References

• Rubanyi, G.M. (Ed): Angiogenesis in health and disease. M.Dekker, Inc., New York – Basel, 2000
• Raizada, M.K., Paton, J.F.R., Kasparov, S., Katovich, M.J. (Eds): Cardiovascular genomics. Humana Press, Totowa, N.J., 2005
• Kornowski, R., Epstein, S.E., Leon, M.B.(Eds.): Handbook of myocardial revascularization and angiogenesis. Martin Dunitz Ltd., London, 2000
• Stegmann, T.J.: New Vessels for the Heart. Angiogenesis as New Treatment for Coronary Heart Disease: The Story of its Discovery and Development. Henderson, Nevada: CardioVascular BioTherapeutics Inc., 2004
• Laham, R.J., Baim, D.S.: Angiogenesis and direct myocardial revascularization. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ, 2005

Therapeutic angiogenesis

Therapeutic angiogenesis is the application of specific compounds which may inhibit or induce the creation of new blood vessels in the body in order to combat disease. The presence of blood vessels where there should be none may affect the mechanical properties of a tissue, increasing the likelihood of failure. The absence of blood vessels in a repairing or otherwise metabolically active tissue may retard repair or some other function. Several diseases (eg. ischemic chronic wounds) are the result of failure or insufficient blood vessel formation and may be treated by a local expansion of blood vessels, thus bringing new nutrients to the site, facilitating repair. Other diseases, such as age-related macular degeneration, may be created by a local expansion of blood vessels, interfering with normal physiological processes.

The modern clinical application of the principle “angiogenesis” can be divided into two main areas: 1. Anti-angiogenic therapies (historically, research started with); 2. Pro-angiogenic therapies. Whereas anti-angiogenic therapies are trying to fight cancer and malignancies^[2][3] (because tumors, in general, are nutrition- and oxygen-dependent, thus being in need of adequate blood supply), the pro-angiogenic therapies are becoming more and more important in the search of new treatment options for cardiovascular diseases (the number one cause of death in the Western world). One of the world-wide first applications of usage of pro-angiogenic methods in humans was a German trial using fibroblast growth factor 1 (FGF-1) for the treatment of coronary artery disease^[4][5][6]. Today, clinical research is ongoing in various clinical trials to promote therapeutic angiogenesis for a variety of atherosclerotic diseases, like coronary heart disease, peripheral arterial disease, wound healing disorders, etc.^[7].

Also, regarding the “mode of action”, pro-angiogenic methods can be differentiated into three main categories: 1. Gene-therapy; 2. Protein-therapy (using angiogenic growth factors like FGF-1 or vascular endothelial growth factor, VEGF); 3. Cell-based therapies. There are still serious, unsolved problems related to gene therapy including: 1. Difficulty integrating the therapeutic DNA (gene) into the genome of target cells; 2. Risk of an undesired immune response; 3 Potential toxicity, immunogenicity, inflammatory responses and oncogenesis related to the viral vectors; and 4. The most commonly occurring disorders in humans such as heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease are most likely caused by the combined effects of variations in many genes, and thus injecting a single gene will not be beneficial in these diseases. In contrast, pro-angiogenic protein therapy uses well defined, precisely structured proteins, with previously defined optimal doses of the individual protein for disease states, and with well-known biological effects. On the other hand, an obstacle of protein therapy is the mode of delivery: oral, intravenous, intra-arterial, or intramuscular routes of the protein’s administration are not always as effective as desired; the therapeutic protein can be metabolized or cleared before it can enter the target tissue. Cell-based pro-angiogenic therapies are still in an early stage of research – with many open questions regarding best cell types and dosages to use.

References

1. ^ Burri, PH (2004). "Intussusceptive angiogenesis: its emergence, its characteristics, and its significance.". Dev Dyn. 231 (3): 474-88.
2. ^ Folkman, J, Klagsbrun, M: Angiogenetic factors. Science 235: 442-447, 1987
3. ^ Folkman J. Fighting cancer by attacking its blood supply. Sci Am. 275:150 –154, 1996
4. ^ Schumacher, B., Pecher, P., von Specht, B.U., Stegmann, T.J.: Induction of neoangiogenesis in ischemic myocardium by human growth factors. Circulation 97: 645-650, 1998
5. ^ Folkman, J.: Angiogenic therapy of the heart. Circulation 97: 628-629, 1998
6. ^ Stegmann, T.J.: A human growth factor in the induction of neoangiogenesis. Exp.Opin.Invest.Drugs 7: 2011-2015, 1998
7. ^ Wagoner, L.E., Merrill, W., Jacobs, J., Conway, G., Boehmer, J., Thomas, K., Stegmann, T.J.: Angiogenesis Protein Therapy With Human Fibroblast Growth Factor (FGF-1): Results Of A Phase I Open Label, Dose Escalation Study In Subjects With CAD Not Eligible For PCI Or CABG. Circulation 116: 443, 2007

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angiogenesis

TiVo HD

REVIEW DATE: 07.24.07

$250.00 - $300.00

• Amazon $299.99
• Circuit City $299.99
• TiVo $299.99

by Joel Santo Domingo

Editor's Note: TiVo recently released the Fall 2007 Service update for TiVo Series3 and TiVo HD DVRs. This update enables the eSATA port for use with approved external hard drives like the Western Digital MY DVR Expander, which adds additional recording space to your TiVo. The update also includes recent Rhapsody and Amazon Unboxed enhancements, multi-room support, and the long-awaited TiVoToGo support. I was able to verify the My DVR Expander support (check back soon for my review), as well as TiVoToGo to both Windows PCs (with Tivo Desktop 2.5 Plus) and Macs (with Roxio Toast 8).

TiVo fans and fanatics rejoice! The TiVo HD gives old and new TiVo users the HDTV quality they want without the steep $800 price of last year's TiVo Series 3 HD. That's because it's basically the "TiVo Series 3 light" that has been rumored since the arrival of the Series 3. Understandably, a few Series 3 (S3) features have been left out to make the TiVo HD more affordable. Even so, most users won't miss them. This is the high-def TiVo you've been waiting for.

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Late in 2006, TiVo released its Series 3 HD. Although the S3 was innovative and groundbreaking, its price was a little high. TiVo will still offer the Series 3 HD to users willing to pay for its larger hard drive, OLED front-panel display, and THX certification for use with home theater systems. More frugal shoppers should check out the new TiVo HD. It retains most of the functionality of the fancy S3, but with a much more palatable $300 price.

Like the S3, the TiVo HD uses built-in tuners to record over-the-air ATSC HDTV, unscrambled QAM cable broadcasts, and premium channels, with the help of two CableCARD tuners. The CableCARD concept is similar to that of SIM cards on cell phones: You can rent the CableCARDs from your cable provider and insert them into whatever video-capable consumer electronics device you own. The CableCARD (like the SIM card) identifies you as a paying customer, so you'll get the level of service you paid for. In theory you could pop your CableCARD into flat-screen TVs, TiVos, other DVRs, and Windows Vista MCE PCs to access your standard and premium programming quickly.

You'll need to get the CableCARDs from your local cable company or FiOS TV provider. Renting one is usually cheaper than renting an entire DVR; the cost is generally $4 to $10 per month for two CableCARDs compared with $10 to $20 for a HD-capable DVR. But you'll still have to pay $8.31 to $19.99 per month for the TiVo service.

The TiVo HD is the same size as the S3. Clad in a glossy black and brushed-metal exterior, its box-shaped chassis is designed to fit into the average TV cabinet or home theater setup. It's about the size of a larger DVD, Blu-ray, or HD-DVD player, and the connections are in the back where you'd expect them.

The new unit retains the component-video, HDMI, S-Video, and composite-video outputs of the S3, as well as the thus-far disabled eSATA port for future hard drive expansion. It comes with a 160GB hard drive, good for about 180 hours of standard-definition TV recorded at "Basic" quality and 20 hours of HD content. This is less capacity than the S3, which has a 250GB hard drive that can store 300 hours of SDTV and 30 hours of HDTV. Dual USB ports support the TiVo's Wireless G network adapter, but this DVR is not enabled for external hard drives. (Not yet, anyway. Given that the TiVo community is an enthusiastic and technically savvy one, I'm sure that user-friendly hacks for the eSATA and USB ports are in the works. )

The TiVo HD did give up a few of the bells and whistles that the S3 model boasted. For example, it lacks the S3's THX certification, but that's a high-end feature designed for the hard-core videophile who needs to make sure his/her home theatre looks and sounds perfect. One feature you may miss is having a backlit programmable remote (handy for navigating in a darkened room and controlling other home theater components). The TiVo HD comes with a non-backlit but otherwise excellent remote that looks just like the Series 2 remotes of the past eight years. The Series 3 HD's backlit remote, the TiVo Glo, is available separately for $49.

As mentioned before, the TiVo HD has less space for recording programs: 180 hours of SD TV shows isn't bad, but you'll find yourself deleting those HD videos sooner, because there's space for only 20 hours of them. Last but not least is the removal of the front OLED display and navigation buttons. The navigation buttons are a nice feature, especially if you lose remotes. Ultimately, though, the buttons and OLED display aren't all that necessary.

Anyone familiar with a recent Series 2 or S3 TiVo will find most of the same navigation and viewing features here. Amazon Unbox now lets you order and download TV shows and movies directly to your TiVo (you once had to do the ordering from your PC, an unwelcome additional step). TiVo's Swivel Search function lets you find programs using tags (like searching a blog) or even with a "If you like this" feature, which uses TiVo 's suggestion engine to find new stuff to record. Swivel Search even searches online content on Amazon Unbox. KidZone creates a kid-friendly environment so that you can shield your children from more adult programming while letting them search for something to watch.

http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,1895,2161819,00.asp